Understanding the Design, Architecture, and Real-World Applications of Embedded Systems in Modern Electronic and Intelligent Devices

 

WHAT IS AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM?

An embedded system is a combination of computer hardware and software designed for a specific function. Embedded systems might also function within a larger system. These systems can be programmable or have a fixed functionality. Embedded systems are used today to control numerous devices. For example, they're used in industrial machines, consumer electronics, agricultural and processing industry devices, automobiles, medical devices, cameras, digital watches, household appliances, airplanes, vending machines, toys and mobile devices.

Embedded systems typically contain a microprocessor -- or a microcontroller-based system, memory and input/output (I/O) devices, all of which share a dedicated function within a larger system. While embedded systems are computing systems, they can range from having no user interface (UI) -- for example, on devices designed to perform a single task -- to complex graphical user interfaces (GUIs), such as in mobile devices. UIs can include buttons, light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and touchscreen sensing. Some systems use remote user interfaces as well.

 

HOW DOES AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM WORK?

Embedded systems always function as part of a complete device. They're low-cost, low-power consuming, small computers that are embedded in other mechanical or electrical systems. Generally, they comprise a processor, power supply, and memory and communication ports. Embedded systems use the communication ports to transmit data between the processor and peripheral devices -- often, other embedded systems -- using a communication protocol. The processor interprets this data with the help of minimal software stored in the memory. The software is usually highly specific to the function that the embedded system serves.

The processor might be a microprocessor or microcontroller. Microcontrollers are simply microprocessors with peripheral interfaces and integrated memory included. Microprocessors use separate integrated circuits for memory and peripherals instead of including them on the chip. Both can be used, but microprocessors typically require more support circuitry than microcontrollers because they're less integrated into the microprocessor. The term system-on-a-chip (SoC) is often used. SoCs typically include multiple processors and interfaces on one chip. They're often used for high-volume embedded systems. Some examples of SoC types are the application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) and the field-programmable gate array (FPGA).

Often, embedded systems are used in real-time operating environments and use a real-time operating system (RTOS) to communicate with the hardware. Near-real-time approaches are suitable at higher levels of chip capability, defined by designers who have increasingly decided the systems are generally fast enough and the tasks tolerant of slight variations in reaction. In these instances, stripped-down versions of the Linux OS are commonly deployed, although other OSes have been pared down to run on embedded systems, including Embedded Java and Microsoft Windows IoT -- formerly Microsoft Windows Embedded.

 

CHARACTERISTICS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

The main characteristic of embedded systems is that they're task-specific. They often include the following additional characteristics:

• They typically consist of hardware, software and firmware.
• They can be embedded in a larger system to perform a specific function, as they're built for specialized tasks within the system, not various tasks.
• They can be either microprocessor-based or microcontroller-based -- both are integrated circuits that give the system compute power.
• They often use ASIC and FPGA SoCs.
• They're often used for sensing and real-time computing in internet of things (IoT) devices, which are devices that are internet-connected and don't require a user to operate.
• They can vary in complexity and function, which affects the type of software, firmware and hardware they use.
• They're often required to perform their function under a time constraint to keep the larger system functioning properly.

 

STRUCTURE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded systems vary in complexity but, generally, consist of the following three main elements:

• Hardware. The hardware of embedded systems is based around microprocessors and microcontrollers. Microprocessors are similar to microcontrollers and, typically, refer to a central processing unit (CPU) that's integrated with other basic computing components, such as memory chips and digital signal processors. Microcontrollers have those components built into one chip.
• Software and firmware. Software for embedded computing systems can vary in complexity. However, industrial-grade microcontrollers and embedded IoT systems usually run simple software that requires little memory.
• RTOSes. These aren't always included in embedded systems, especially smaller-scale systems. RTOSes define how the system works by supervising the software and setting rules during program execution.

In terms of hardware, a basic embedded system consists of the following elements:

• Sensors. These components convert physical sense data into an electrical signal.
• Analog-to-digital converters. A-D converters change an analog electrical signal into a digital one.
• Processors. These process digital signals and store them in memory.
• Digital-to-analog converters. D-A converters change the digital data from the processor into analog data.
• Actuators. These components control the mechanical motion of the embedded system by converting electrical signals into physical actions.

The sensor reads external inputs, the converters make that input readable to the processor, and the processor turns that information into useful output for the embedded system.

 

TYPES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded system types differ in their functional requirements. They include the following:

• Mobile embedded systems are small systems that are designed to be portable. Digital cameras, smartphones and laptops are examples.
• Networked embedded systems are connected to a network to provide output to other systems. Examples include home security systems and point-of-sale systems.
• Standalone embedded systems aren't reliant on a host system. Like any embedded system, they perform a specialized task. However, they don't necessarily belong to a host system, unlike other embedded systems. A calculator or MP3 player are examples.
• Real-time embedded systems give the required output in a defined time interval. They're often used in medical, industrial and military sectors because they're responsible for time-critical tasks. A traffic control system is an example.

Embedded systems can also be categorized by the following performance requirements:

• Small-scale embedded systems often use no more than an 8-bit microcontroller.
• Medium-scale embedded systems use a larger 16-32-bit microcontroller and often link microcontrollers together.
• Sophisticated-scale embedded systems often use several algorithms that result in software and hardware complexities and might require more complex software, a configurable processor and a programmable logic array.

There are several common embedded system software architectures, which become necessary as embedded systems grow and become more complex in scale. These include the following:

• Simple control loops call subroutines, which manage a specific part of the hardware or embedded programming.
• Interrupt controlled systems have two loops: a main one and a secondary one. Interruptions in the loops trigger tasks.
• Cooperative multitasking is essentially a simple control loop located in an application programming interface.
• Preemptive multitasking or multithreading is often used with an RTOS and features synchronization and task-switching strategies.

Very large-scale integration (VLSI) describes the complexity of an integrated circuit (IC). VLSI is the process of embedding hundreds of thousands of transistors into a chip, whereas large-scale integration (LSI) microchips contain thousands of transistors, medium-scale integration (MSI) contains hundreds of transistors, and small-scale integration (SSI) contains tens of transistors. Ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) refers to placing millions of transistors on a chip.

 

EXAMPLES OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Embedded systems are used in a wide range of technologies across an array of industries. Some examples include the following:

• Automobiles. Modern cars commonly consist of many computers, or embedded systems, designed to perform different tasks within the vehicle. Some of these systems perform basic utility functions and others provide entertainment or user-facing functions. As modern cars become more computerized, the number of embedded systems increases. Some embedded systems in consumer vehicles include cruise control, backup sensors, suspension control, navigation systems, alarm systems and airbag systems.
• Mobile phones. These consist of many embedded systems, including GUI software and hardware, operating systems (OSes), cameras, microphones, and Universal Serial Bus I/O modules.
• Industrial machines. These contain embedded systems, such as sensors, and can be embedded systems themselves. Industrial machines often have embedded automation systems that perform specific monitoring and control functions.
• Medical equipment. These contain embedded systems such as sensors and control mechanisms. Medical equipment, such as industrial machines, must also be user-friendly so that human health isn't jeopardized by preventable machine mistakes. This means these systems often include a more complex OS and GUI designed for an appropriate UI.
• Fitness trackers. These wearable devices contain embedded systems that collect data on the user such as heart rate, blood and oxygen levels and number of steps.

 

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